School Violence Essay Example

School Violence Essay Concepts of juvenile delinquency and school violence are intrinsically related. School violence is a practical reflection of the processes encompassed with term â€Å"juvenile delinquency.† From the critical standpoint, juvenile delinquency or engagement of young individual in criminal behavior starts in most times at school. The public’s concern about violence in schools has been illustrated in media stories, congressional testimony, and numerous studies and reports that vividly underscore the pervasiveness of the problem. Nowhere, however, is the magnitude of the nation’s concern about school violence reflected more urgently than in Goal 6 of the Goals 2000: Educate America Act adopted by Congress and signed into law by President Clinton in March 1994. Goal 6 states that â€Å"by the year 2000, every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning.† The supporting narrative for this goal states that â€Å"no child or youth should be fearful on the way to school, be afraid while there, or have to cope with pressures to make unhealthy choices† (USDE, 1993). However, it is evident that many of the statements proclaimed in the Act are not fulfilled, and juvenile delinquency and school violence are still connected in a dangerous tandem. Atkins (1994) indicates that 100,000 guns are transported to the school every day. Besides, during each year three million crimes take place near or inside of public schools. As a result, there are numerous examples of new â€Å"safety rules† that were made for elimination of hiding weapons or for constraining excess interaction between the students. For example, in some school in Washington State there are no more lockers; in California some require transparent backpacks; some another forbids handshakes between the teams. Problem of juvenile delinquency as well as of school violence existed along ago; it exists nowadays and will probably exist for a long time in the future. As every conflict, school violence also has its own causes and ways of solution. School violence is caused by the number of things. According to Atkins (1994), children violence in schools usually has two major causes. The first one is the increase in number of violence in movies and television that children watch. The examination of this educational conflict, that was made by the American Psychological Association, reports that American children see about eight thousand murders on the television and around one 100,000 of other violent performances before they start attending junior high school. Importantly, yet more violent acts are depicted on television, sales of video games depicting death and destruction are skyrocketing, and many rock videos show violence as a viable means of conflict resolution. We will write a custom essay sample on School Violence specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on School Violence specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on School Violence specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The second cause explains that children violence may appear as a result of poverty. Indeed, the problem of poverty is strongly connected with school violence. Poverty in families is usually neighboring with alcoholism, child abuse, bullying and agression. Moreover, many incarcerated adolescents are characterized as having behavioral and emotional problems that would qualify them for special education or residential treatment programs. Nelson and Rutherford (1989:10-11) indicated that 77% of incarcerated students receiving special education services were behaviorally disordered. Many publications present horrifying statistics on violence in the United States. The Carnegie Quarterly report states that â€Å"nearly one million adolescents between the ages of twelve and nineteen are victims of violent crimes each year† (Hechinger, 1994:5). Marion Wright Edelman tells that an American child is killed every two hours by guns, and thirty more are injured each day (Edelman, 1994). The figures vary some from report to report, but they are never less than appalling. Sociologists, educators, and others who study the phenomenon of violence blame it variously on poverty, doing poorly in school, lack of social skills, hopelessness with respect to getting a job, the influence of television and movies, and a general failure of morals in society at large. School programs aimed at reducing delinquency sometimes target one of these presumed causes for example, doing poorly in school and try to prevent violence by removing the cause. It is not at all clear that violence prevention programs are working. The Carnegie report suggests that some are, but a recent Harvard Education Letter article (1994) raises serious doubts about all such special programs. The best course of action seems to be to transform the whole school climate. In a caring climate, in a â€Å"full-service school,† violence prevention programs may add the skills and knowledge needed to resist particular forms of violence. Basically, however, students must believe that the adults in their schools and communities care about them, that their well-being and growth matter. Kids seem able to survive material poverty, and many can ignore much of the violence in the media or, at least, keep its effects to a minimum if they have continuing relationships with adults who obviously care about them. According to Atkins (1994), parents should confine television, extend their child’s social life, and make sure that any weapon is out of childrenâ⠂¬â„¢s reach. They should also teach their child how to overcome the problems themselves and discuss possible ways of solving with them. Since juvenile delinquency origins in American schools through violence and other conflicting and anti-social behavior, the understanding of the school violence is pivotal to understanding and interpreting trends of juvenile delinquency. Violence prevention strategies conducted in school setting, various couselling programs for high school students, social support programs may have significant affect on the dynamics of juvenile delinquency.

Free Essays on A Jury Of Peers

Critical Analysis of â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers† In â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers,† the setting is very important; it sets the mood for the entire story, and whether Minnie Wright will be innocent or guilty. The setting is gloomy and sad; from the looks of the outside of the house to the way the inside of the house looks and feels. When the group of people are riding to the Wright house the mood is set. The house is in a hollow and it is described as â€Å"lonesome.† It is also surrounded by â€Å"lonesome-looking trees (1).† The lonesome house and trees symbolize Minnie Wright’s lonesome life. The inside of the house is not any more cheerful than the outside. Minnie’s chores are all half complete and the dishes are dirty. Minnie is described as â€Å"not much of a housekeeper (6).† There is also an old rocking chair that is in the living room of the house. It is described as old, dingy, and saggy; this chair parallels Minnie’s life, and it adds to the gloom of the setting(3). The gloomy and dirty house add to the gloom that surrounds the murder. All of the people in the house seemed to be a bit spooked because of what the house looks and feels like. Mrs. Hale points out that the Wright house â€Å"never seemed a very cheerful place.† When Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale go into the front room to retrieve Minnie’s clothes they both get a chill (8). The setting of the story makes the reader want to believe that Minnie Wright is guilty. If the house had been cheerful, clean, and welcoming people would be less likely to think that Minnie Wright is guilty of killing her husband. The setting of the house is gloomy, and it adds to the guilt that surrounds Minnie.... Free Essays on A Jury Of Peers Free Essays on A Jury Of Peers Critical Analysis of â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers† In â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers,† the setting is very important; it sets the mood for the entire story, and whether Minnie Wright will be innocent or guilty. The setting is gloomy and sad; from the looks of the outside of the house to the way the inside of the house looks and feels. When the group of people are riding to the Wright house the mood is set. The house is in a hollow and it is described as â€Å"lonesome.† It is also surrounded by â€Å"lonesome-looking trees (1).† The lonesome house and trees symbolize Minnie Wright’s lonesome life. The inside of the house is not any more cheerful than the outside. Minnie’s chores are all half complete and the dishes are dirty. Minnie is described as â€Å"not much of a housekeeper (6).† There is also an old rocking chair that is in the living room of the house. It is described as old, dingy, and saggy; this chair parallels Minnie’s life, and it adds to the gloom of the setting(3). The gloomy and dirty house add to the gloom that surrounds the murder. All of the people in the house seemed to be a bit spooked because of what the house looks and feels like. Mrs. Hale points out that the Wright house â€Å"never seemed a very cheerful place.† When Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale go into the front room to retrieve Minnie’s clothes they both get a chill (8). The setting of the story makes the reader want to believe that Minnie Wright is guilty. If the house had been cheerful, clean, and welcoming people would be less likely to think that Minnie Wright is guilty of killing her husband. The setting of the house is gloomy, and it adds to the guilt that surrounds Minnie....

Paul Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Paul - Essay Example He did not rely on any of the disciples or earlier converts to guide him in his ministry but he relied exclusively on the Jesus to guide him in his ministry. Apostle Paul is born in the city of Tarsus of Cilicia to an Israelite family belonging to the tribe of Judah. On the eighth day, he is circumcised in compliance with the Jewish laws of Moses (Philippians 3:5, Genesis 17:12, Leviticus 12). He became a Roman citizen owing to his birth location. Paul goes to Jerusalem in order to learn the way of the Pharisees in a Pharisaic Rabbinical school the school was under the leadership of Rabbi Gamaliel and he personally took the initiative to teach Paul. This is evident in Acts 5:34, 22:3. The Pharisees were well known for their rigid following of the laws of Moses which explains why Paul was very radical in his actions of persecuting those who had converted to Christianity. The martyrdom of Stephen takes place in which he is stoned to death due to his staunch faith in Jesus Christ. Stephen was among the seven deacons who were appointed by the disciples to assist in the distribution of food. Saul who later changed his name to Paul consented to have witnessed the death of Stephen. The conversion of Saul takes place which occurs when Saul was on his way to Damascus after receiving permission from the High Priest to go there and search for Christian believers in order to punish them. He then heard a voice of Jesus Christ asking him why he was persecuting his people. He became blinded after which he was led to Damascus to Ananias whom the Lord had directed to pray for him to be healed. He was later baptized and converted to Christianity. Acts 9. Paul makes his first visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. He began to preach there which angers some of the Jews to an extent that they plot to take away his life. He was later sent by the church to

The Sacrament of Baptism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Sacrament of Baptism - Research Paper Example Furthermore, Baptism is the sacrament of regeneration by way of water in the word. It is also defined as the sacrament of supernatural rebirth. Moreover, it gives us a new life. The sacrament of baptism is the first of the seven sacraments not only in time but in priority. This is because other sacraments depend on it (catholicism.about.com). The sacrament of Baptism is necessary to Christians as Christ Himself ordered His disciples to preach the Gospel to all nations and baptize those the accept the message of the Gospel. (John 3:1-21), during His encounter with Nicodemus, He made it clear that for salvation baptism was necessary: "Amen, amen I say to thee, unless a man is born again of water and the Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God." Furthermore, for Catholics take baptism as a mark of a Christian as it brings Christians into a new life in Christ. The biblical root of the sacrament of baptism The biblical root of the sacrament of baptism is evident as many events in Israel’s salvation history direct to the saving grace found in the waters of baptism e.g. Israel Crossing the Red Sea, the great Flood and the Israel crossing the River Jordan into the promised land. In the Gospel, at the beginning of Jesus’ public ministry, he was baptized by John in the River Jordan. In and during this event, Jesus, the sinless One, identified himself with sinful humanity whom he came to set free from the slavery and power of sins. Jesus filled the waters with his divine presence by stepping into River Jordan just as he does when the water is blesses during the sacrament of baptism. Furthermore, before Jesus returned to His Father, He issued the Great commission: to preach in his name, make disciples and baptize in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit (Matthew 28:16-20). Types of sacrament of baptism Churches recognize that apart from the baptism of water there is also baptism of desire. This is baptism employs both to those who, die early in time before being baptized while as they wished to be baptized, and those who through no fault of their own, do not know the Gospel of Christ or His Church, but who still seek God with an open and genuine heart, and moved by grace, make an effort in their actions to do His will as they know it through the guiding principle of conscience (Constitution on the Church, Second Vatican Council). Similar to baptism of desire, baptism of blood refers to the martyrdom of those believers who were killed for the faith before they had an opportunity to be baptized. This was widely known to occur in church during the early centuries, but also, later on in missionary lands. Consequently, the baptism of blood has the same effects as the baptism of water. The principal symbols of Baptism The main symbols of the sacrament of baptism portray the meaning of this sacrament. These symbols include; water, oil, white garment and candle. Water is symbolic as it can both destroy and save life. In the sa crament of baptism, pouring of the blessed water is the outward obviously seen sign of the interior transformation being brought about in the soul (Jensen, 69). In the Old Testament, oil was used to anoint kings and queens to symbolize the coming of God’s Spirit to enable them to be godly leaders of God’s people. Similarly, the anointing of a candidate at Baptism with sacred chrism, blesses by the bishop, symbolizes an interior anointing in

Petroleum Economic and Oil field management 2013-2014 Essay - 1

Petroleum Economic and Oil field management 2013-2014 - Essay Example The above are but some of the few reasons why there has been limited adoption of energy conservation. The huge amounts of income, derived as petro-dollars, do significantly contribute to various state-entities’ economic survival (ElBaradei, 2013). This affects the limited nature of alternative energy resource development taking place globally. The continued rate of global industrialization, which necessitates increased consumption of energy resources, especially oil and natural gas has been a factor of concern because conservation would pose a threat to continued industrialization. Another important factor is that alternative energy resources, though significantly advantageous than the more prominent fossil fuels, are unfortunately very expensive to develop. In addition is the factor of global application and viability, as none of the potential alternatives can at the current contexts, be exploited effectively to warrant a change from oil and natural gas utility (Leggett, 2001). The case scenario above is further impacted by the fact that there is a hold/ control of this sector. This is mainly by global multinationals, which are majorly Western-based and capitalistic in nature. These firms, are powerful actors in the prevailing international relations, and hence contribute to the slow pace of change. This is influenced by the fact that major revenues are gained, not only by these firm-entities, but also by their mother-nations, which are all powerful actors in the global arena. Consumerism, which as a phenomenon has been founded on en masse production of goods and service provision, further fuels the need for oil utility, in the production of various crucial products. The underlying global industrial base is thus, the main driver of fossil fuel consumption; significantly influenced by the global industrial output and human advancement

Energy Systems Assignment Task

Energy Systems Assignment Task For example: goalie position is in the aerobic glycolysis (breakdown of glucose) system. They are treading water in one position until someone takes a shot. When someone takes a shot, the goalie has to react fast and powerful to get maximum power. Utility players are going as fast as possible for the entire game. Center forward plays at a med-high speed, generally in the anaerobic system throughout the entire game. 3. ATP-PC System ATP is a complex chemical compound stored in the mitochondria. The compound consists of a large molecule called adenosine (A) and three smaller molecules called phosphates (P). Each of the phosphates is held together by high energy bonds. Phosphate P P P ADENOSINE High Energy Bonds Energy When the last phosphate has detached, energy stored in bonds between the phosphates becomes available and this is transferred to the cells. In the Muscle cells, the energy from ATP allows the fibres to contract and make movement possible. The heat and energy are released as the bond between the two end phosphates breaks Adenosine Diphosphate High Energy Bonds P P ADENOSINE This is now referred to as ADP (adenosine diphosphate) because it doesnt have all three phosphates attached. You can gain the phosphate back by resting. When youre resting, creatine phosphate steps in and resynthesise, that is, reattaching the phosphate and restoring the ATP which has been party destroyed. Creatine and Phosphate are also held together by high energy bonds. High energy bonds C = P Creatine Phosphate The bond between creatine and phosphate breaks down, releasing energy. C P Energy The energy released drives the free phosphate (Pi) back to join ATP. P ADENOSINE P Pi ENERGY ATP is brought back to its normal form and the cycle is continued until CP/PC supplies are exhausted. Phosphate High Energy Bonds P P P ADENOSINE The ATP-PC/CP system is a predominant energy system when there is a swim off at the start of the game, when there is a fight for the ball, when there is high intensity sprinting for the ball against your opponent and when goalie is reaching for the ball to save. This system has no by products and last for around 10 seconds. 4. Lactic Acid System When you have gone through your ATP-PC system completely (CP is exhausted), you move into the next best system, anaerobic glycolysis/lactic acid. This system last for around 2min 90sec but it depends on the intensity of the workout. Lactic acid/anaerobic glycolysis system produces energy for high intensity activities to medium intensity activities. When youre working out in the anaerobic glycolysis system, the lactic acid builds up in your muscles because oxygen is not available. This causes a burning sensation, shortness in breath and fatigue. The lactic acid uses glycogen to produce energy. An example of lactic acid in water polo is when youre in defence, youre chasing the attacker for a time longer than 10 seconds, and hence youre in the anaerobic glycolysis system. This systems by product is lactic acid and the main fuel is carbohydrates. An advantage from this system is that it is fast and good for burning carbohydrates. A disadvantage from this system is that is only last for 10 seconds. This system is generally used in team sports. 5. Aerobic Glycolysis Workouts that last for a period of 3 minutes to 2 hours are in the aerobic system. This system is oxygen required and is used generally for slow egg beater/treading water or defence (water polo). There are 3 main fuels; the best is carbohydrates, then fats, then protein. The by products are sweat/H ²o and Co ². This system last from 3 minutes to 2 hours. This is an efficient system particularly for its long time frame and consistent speed. A disadvantage from this system is that it is at medium-low intensity. This system creates the highest amount of energy of the three, although it works at the lowest intensity. At the start of a workout, oxygen cannot reach the muscles until the next couple of minutes so you have to rely on the anaerobic systems for that short amount of time. The aerobic system is broken down into three sections: Glycolysis Krebs cycle/citric acid cycle Electron Transport Chain (ETC) Glycolysis Glycolysis is the breakdown of carbohydrates in the form of glycogen of glucose into pyruvic acid. The Krebs Cycle The Krebs cycle is the second phase in the process of aerobic metabolism. Pyruvic acid that was produced in the stage of glycolysis enters the mitochondria and is instantly converted to acetyl coenzyme which combines with oxaloacetic acid that forms citric acid. Other chemical reactions occur to make enough energy to resynthesise 2 ATP molecules. Other chemical reactions occur to resynthesise 2 ATP molecules. The by-products of this include CO2 (carbon dioxide), H (Hydrogen) this process is called a cycle because the the starting product is oxaloacetic acid is also the finishing product. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) The hydrogen from the krebs cycle is transported into the inner membranes of the mitochondria where it is split into a electron and a proton. The electrons are then put through a series of redox reactions. This releases quite a lot of energy and can resynthesise ATP. 6. Centre forward Centre forward is one of the hardest positions to be in. It takes up a lot of energy to play in. Centre forward sits in the opponents goals and wrestles for the ball until they get the ball and then sprints down to their goal to get in a good position to shoot. The predominant system theyre in is Lactic acid/anaerobic glycolysis. They do not get a long time to recover from this so sometimes they slip into aerobic glycolysis/oxygen system. When theyre sprinting, theyre at their full potential, so theyre using what is left of their energy, therefore they are in their ATP system. ATP Lactic Acid Oxygen 10% 60% 30% 7. Lactic Acid Build Up The percentage of lactic acid is reasonably high (60%) during a centre forwards game. This may bring them down so theyre in the oxygen system for the other percentage of time. The build-up of lactic acid is bringing down their potential to play at their best. To be able to play more, they need to have a recovery. Theyre in recovery time when theyre waiting to tackle for the ball. This is the only time they basically get to recover. Oxygen is the key to getting rid of lactic acid. You need a minute to get enough into you to recover.

Foundations of Group Behavior Essay

Groups can be as small as two people or as big as the number may reach even in hundreds of thousands. They are formed for different reasons and serve different benefits to their members and also to their organizations. However, there may be some drawbacks too as it will be seen in this paper. Formal and Informal Groups Groups can be divided into two types: Formal groups and Informal groups. Formal groups are those groups which have been recognized and created by the organization. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) They have a longer lifespan and have a more formal structure. They also have specific jobs that are to be handled and the efforts of the group are directed in such a way that they will lead to the accomplishment of the organization’s objectives. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) These groups are formed after extensive planning regarding their volume and constitution of the group. Waiters in a restaurant can be thought of as a formal group. On the other hand, informal groups are groups that are not made formally by the organization and do not have a specific structure that is recognized by the organization. (Robbins 2004, p.164) These can be formed by social interaction between workers in an organization and can be diverse in their nature in any sense. For example, four employees who met in the canteen can develop a sort of relationship with each other although they may not be required to interact with each other to accomplish any organizational objectives. This group has formed without any formal structure that can be identified in the organizational structure and is an example of an informal group. Command, Task, Interest, and Friendship Groups Groups can also be categorized into command groups, task groups, interest groups, or friendship groups. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) Command groups are created formally and they are recognized in the organizational hierarchical structure. These groups comprise of members who are answerable to one manager. Although task groups are also made by the organization and interact to achieve organizational objectives, their members are not always answerable to their immediate managers. Workers who originally report to different managers can be combined by an organization to accomplish a certain task and during this task, these individual members can skip the original organizational hierarchy if required. For example, an organization can ask employees from the software development team to interact with members of the human resources team to decide about vacancies in the organization. Both command groups and task groups are types of formal groups as both of these groups are formed formally to achieve organizational objectives. On the other hand, an interest group is a type of an informal group that can be formed to achieve some particular goal that has a common interest for all of the group members. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) For example, a few workers can join hands to ask for a salary increase. Similarly, friendship groups can also be categorized as a type of informal groups as they are formed by members who share some common characteristics that led them to develop friendship with each other. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) Moreover, friendship groups can also interact outside the dimensions of the workplace. Both interest groups and friendship groups are types of informal groups as they are not made formally by the organization, are not recognized by the organizational structure, and do not necessarily meet to accomplish organizational objectives. The aim of informal groups is more inclined towards fulfilling social requirements of the individuals in the group. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) However, the relationship between members of informal groups has significant impacts on their work performance and their actions. A group in the past was usually associated with some social activity where a number of people from the society would join each other for a specific reason. These social alliances, widely known as informal groups, fulfill the social needs of the members. In interest groups, society members from different fields join each other for vested interests while friendship groups are characterized by the common characteristic(s) of the members. The member of these groups may meet in health clubs, cafe, and public parks and so on. Since these groups lack a formal structure and rules and guidelines, the chances of conflicts are high but once the members get along, the group may be able to fight for their interest even in the worst situations. External and Internal Factors affecting Groups When we hear the word group, we infer it to a collection of people in an organization that work together to achieve a desired specific goal. These are the groups in which the members are confined to work within the boundaries of organizationally set guidelines and rules to achieve a goal or number of goals. They may face the problems of time limitations, resource(s) restriction, or the group may not be empowered with authority to make decisions on its own, or the organizational culture may not be aligned to that of the group. Similarly, the organization’s selection and rewarding policies may affect the performance of the groups as groups are composed of personnel that are hired and rewarded by the organization. These limitations are not under the group’s control and can be called as the external factors affecting the group’s performance. Internal factors affecting the group’s performance may be those factors that form the structure of the group. The reason is that these factors affect the behavior of the members. Group leaders that serve as a mentor, facilitator, conflict manager, and so on may bring about the desired changes in the member’s behavior and thus may increase the group’s performance. Tuckman’s Five-Stage Model It was in 1965 that Bruce Tuckman revealed his four-stage model comprising of Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing. Afterwards, he added a fifth stage, Adjourning, too to his original four-stage model. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) (Clark 2005, n. p. ) Forming Forming is the first stage where individuals in a group get acquainted with each other. In the beginning, the group members are careful not to show any behavior that may be considered as unacceptable for a group behavior. For example, at this stage, a group member may refrain from pointing out mistakes of another member as he might be afraid that it can give rise to some conflict. During this stage, members interact with each other to exchange basic concepts and primary matters. It can be difficult to figure out all of the problems at this stage as individuals within the group can get distracted by the different situations in which they try to adjust themselves. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) Therefore, only minimal progress is attained as far as the accomplishment of organizational objectives is concerned, but this is normal at this stage. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) This phase ends when individuals within the group begin to perceive themselves as constituents of the team. (Robbins 2004, p. 165) Storming During the next stage, storming, group members gradually realize that they have achieved little so far. Each and every member has his own perceptions of how things should be done and a suitable knowledge sharing environment is not formed yet. This can be considered the most troublesome phase as members start to recognize that the jobs to be done are not as easy as they seemed previously. Interactions with other team members are often limited to arguments about what should the group do as a whole. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) Conflicts may arise as team members do not want to have their individual freedom limited. (Robbins 2004, p. 165) At this stage, members do not trust others and do what seems appropriate with respect to their own experience. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) A lot of energy is wasted in these issues and not much is attained during this stage. However, members start to develop a mutual understanding amongst themselves. This stage ends when an obvious and established hierarchy of command forms inside the team. (Robbins 2004, p. 165) Norming The next stage is Norming where the group begins to share information with each other. Good associations build up amongst employees and the team shows cohesiveness. (Robbins 2004, p. 165) Members resolve their conflicts and collaborate with each other. During this phase, members also start to criticize others in a productive way so that the criticism benefits instead of creating conflicts. For example, a senior member can explain the correct way of doing a job to his juniors while supporting arguments from researches published in peer-reviewed journals. At the same time, the senior member can brief the juniors about the consequences of doing things wrong and the benefits of doing things in the right way. Junior members are also more likely to listen as they start realizing the importance of achieving organizational objectives while working in groups. As conflicts are avoided and minimized, most of the energy and time is spent on accomplishing organizational objectives. This phase ends when team members develop an attitude that matches the members’ mutual perception of acceptable group behavior. Performing The fourth stage Performing begins with members having developed good relationships with each others. Now, team members can identify problems, solve them, and implements the alterations successfully. Finally, group members have learned about the strong points and weak points of their fellow members. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) The group begins to perform very well and is now a successful and cohesive group. This is the final phase for enduring work groups although temporary work groups have another phase. Adjourning The last stage, which is for temporary work groups like task groups, is known as Adjourning. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) The work is wrapped up in this final stage. Some team members are happy due to the accomplishment of the task. Others may be sad to leave their fellows with whom they had developed cordial relationships. Some relationships may even continue even though the team may be dissolved. Roles The roles that are played by team members also affects their behavior as different teams are formed for different reasons and thus demands different behaviors in different situations. Several characteristics may always be associated with a role and these make the role identity. Similarly one’s perception of how to behave in a certain situation and other’s expectations of a certain behavior in a situation may also mould one’s behavior. This phenomenon of Role Expectation is visible in the real life where employees and employers form expectations for each others. (Robbins 2004, p. 169) Failure of exposing an expected behavior by any party may cause damage by bringing about an undesired behavioral change that might not be acceptable by the other party. Managing divergent role expectations arising from different employees and employers can result in a role conflict where meeting the role expectations of one group member may hinder with meeting the role expectations of other members, and this situation results in frustration for the group members. (Robbins 2004, p. 169) Norms and Status The norms that a group possesses explain its members how to behave in a different situations and thus should be possessed by all the members to avoid conflicts. For example the performance norms tell members how to work, how much efforts to put, how to increase productivity and so on. The appearance norms include things like appropriate dress code whereas social arrangement norms fulfill the social needs within the work groups by creating social interaction among members. (Robbins 2004, p. 169) Then there are allocation of resources norms that demands members to avoid wastage of time and resources and tells about salary and job. Working in groups also comes with problems called deviant workplace behavior where other members disturb others by a number of ways like harassment, verbal abuse, spreading rumors, stealing their goods and so on. Such behaviors may even make a member not only to leave a group but to leave the job. We see many women who leave their jobs as their boss or colleagues sexually harass them. These behaviors are found to be prevailing in people that have been members of groups whose norms support such behavior. Managers should plan and work to avoid such behaviors so that group members do not have to leave their group/job or reduce their efforts. Status as it affects ones norms also affects ones behavior. But this deviation should not be so much that other group members feel that they are treated unequally as it may affect their productivity and thus may decline the group performance. This decline in productivity is not just because of member’s sense of equity but also depends on the cultures to which they belong which consequently affect how they value status. Size, Composition, and Cohesiveness As far as the size of the group is concerned, it may not be the right predictor of a group’s success or failure as difference in size depends on the goal to be achieved. While small groups are good for short time projects, bigger groups are required when diverse objectives are to be achieved. Moreover, the composition of groups affects their performance directly. Evidence shows that heterogeneous groups outperform homogeneous groups but in return they take more time as members need to adjust and understand each other. (Robbins 2004, p. 174) Same is the case with groups composed of diverse national or cultured members. But as the gap between members having common attribute(s) increases, the group productivity decreases. Cohesiveness is also an important feature of groups. It is the tendency to which members are attracted to each other and thus stimulated to work together. It affects the group performance and thus its productivity for the performance related norms are high, cohesive groups will perform highly. (Robbins 2004, p. 175) Cohesiveness can be increased by providing a broader span of time so that members spend more time; the size of the group should be reduced as smaller groups make interaction easy. Group Decision Making: Groupthink Irving (1972, 1982) came up with the revolutionizing concept of groupthink that is related with the group decision making strategies. (qtd. In Universiteit Twente 2004, n. p.) This theory proposes that a group may develop itself in such a way that preserving the integrity of the group may become important than accepting and implementing real facts and optimal solutions. This situation usually takes place when a team is extremely cohesive in its nature, and is led by an authoritative leader where criticism and conflicting opinions are not welcomed. (Universiteit Twente 2004, n. p. ) There are a few drawbacks of having this approach of group decision making. Firstly, the team will restrict itself to only a handful of alternatives. The solution that is proposed initially and is accepted by the majority is not subject to criticism and arguments that may identify some complicated problems. Moreover, opinions from professionals are not valued very much. Lastly, the team becomes so overconfident of its practices and opinions that contingency plans are not made. (Universiteit Twente 2004, n. p. ) Therefore, groupthink can hinder the overall performance of the team significantly. (Robbins 2004, p. 179) Group Decision-making Techniques Brainstorming In brainstorming, the team leader may mention the problem in a clear-cut way to all members. Afterwards, each member comes up with his own ideas to solve the problem. It is essential during this stage that members do not criticize each other. All the solutions proposed by members are noted down so that they can be thoroughly discussed in future. (Robbins 2004, p. 181) One obvious advantage of this approach is that one opinion from a member gives rise to a number of opinions and members also come up with out-of-the-box ideas as criticism does not prevail. However, according to one research, members may still hold some ideas faring criticism from others although it is clearly mentioned and understood that no one will criticize. (Sample 1984, n. p. ) Nominal Group Technique In the Nominal Group Technique, employees join together as a team to solve the problem, but instead of sharing their opinions with each others, they just do brainstorming on an individual basis and note down their own ideas and solutions to the problem. Afterwards, members discuss their ideas one by one with others and each idea is discussed, clarified, and assessed. Then, on an individual basis again, members rank the ideas and solutions without consulting others. The solutions that are ranked higher by the majority are taken as the final group decision. (Robbins 2004, p. 181) One problem with this approach is opinions of members do not converge and the whole process may seem too mechanical. (Sample 1984, n. p. ) Conclusion When people work in groups, their analytical abilities enhances and they think of one thing in different aspects and since members in group are diverse, many new ways of doing a task can be sought. At the same time, those ways can be analyzed and assessed from different perspectives. Another reason for a group may be efficiency as a group can work faster. The chances of errors also reduce in groups as members look at minute details which might be ignored if the task was to be done by a single person. Time is another reason for working in groups. Time is saved when people work in groups. Also decision made by a group is usually better than that made by a single person as a group considers different aspects and follow the technique of brainstorming. Data gathering becomes easy in groups as diverse people collect the diverse data which makes the work easy. Groups are now vital to an organization’s success. They not only save time and other resources but also result in a better decision, but while forming a group, care should be taken as conflict may take place among member which eventually may decline the group performance and productivity and thus not only may waste money but also time and energy that might have been used effectively. Bibliography Clark, D. (2005, September 29) Matrix Teams [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed 15 Sep 2007] Janis, I. L. (1972) Victims of Groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Janis, I. L. (1982) Groupthink, 2nd Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Robbins, Stephen P. , (2004) Chapter Eight: Foundations of Group Behavior, Organizational Behavior, 11th Edition [Internet]. Prentice Hall. Available from: [Accessed 15 Sep 2007] Sample, J. A. (1984) Nominal Group Technique: An Alternative to Brainstorming. Journal of Extension, 22(2) [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed 15 Sep 2007] Universiteit Twente (09/06/2004) Groupthink [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed 15 Sep 2007]

Cultural Relativism Essay

Cultural relativism is the view that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual within his own social context. In other words, â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† are culture-specific; what is considered moral in one society may be considered immoral in another, and, since no universal standard of morality exists, no one has the right to judge another society’s customs. Cultural relativism is widely accepted in modern anthropology. Cultural relativists believe that all cultures are worthy in their own right and are of equal value. Diversity of cultures, even those with conflicting moral beliefs, is not to be considered in terms of right and wrong or good and bad. Today’s anthropologist considers all cultures to be equally legitimate expressions of human existence, to be studied from a purely neutral perspective. Cultural relativism is closely related to ethical relativism, which views truth as variable and not absolute. What constitutes right and wrong is determined solely by the individual or by society. Since truth is not objective, there can be no objective standard which applies to all cultures. No one can say if someone else is right or wrong; it is a matter of personal opinion, and no society can pass judgment on another society. Cultural relativism sees nothing inherently wrong (and nothing inherently good) with any cultural expression. So, the ancient Mayan practices of self-mutilation and human sacrifice are neither good nor bad; they are simply cultural distinctives, akin to the American custom of shooting fireworks on the Fourth of July. Human sacrifice and fireworks—both are simply different products of separate socialization. In January 2002, when President Bush referred to terrorist nations as an â€Å"axis of evil,† the cultural relativists were mortified. That any society would call another society â€Å"evil† is anathema to the relativist. The current movement to â€Å"understand† radical Islam—rather than to fight it—is a sign that relativism is making gains. The cultural relativist believes Westerners should not impose their ideas on the Islamic world, including the idea that the suicide bombing of civilians is evil. Islamic belief in the necessity of jihad is just as valid as any belief in Western civilization, the relativists assert, and America is as much to blame for the attacks of 9/11 as are the terrorists. Cultural relativists are generally opposed to missionary work. When the Gospel penetrates hearts and changes lives, some cultural change always follows. For example, when Don and Carol Richardson evangelized the Sawi tribe of the Netherlands New Guinea in 1962, the Sawi changed: specifically, they gave up their long-held customs of cannibalism and immolating widows on their husbands’ funeral pyres. The cultural relativists may accuse the Richardsons of cultural imperialism, but most of the world would agree that ending cannibalism is a good thing. (For the complete story of the Sawis’ conversion as well as an exposition of cultural reform as it relates to missions, see Don Richardson’s book Peace Child.) Cultural relativism is the principle that an individual human’s beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual’s own culture. This principle was established as axiomatic inanthropological research by Franz Boas in the first few decades of the 20th century and later popularized by his students. Boas first articulated the idea in 1887: â€Å"†¦civilization is not something absolute, but †¦ is relative, and †¦ our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes.†[1] but did not actually coin the term â€Å"cultural relativism.†

Japan

Japan is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government. The three branches of government, judicial, executive and legislative have a system of checks and balances and separation of powers. Sovereignty is vested in the people; the emperor is the symbol of the state.1 The nations that make up Japan consist of different ethnic groups and religions. The different ethnicities include 99.4 percent Japanese and 0.6 percent Korean.2 Ethnic Koreans regularly face discrimination in housing, education, and employment opportunities. For example, they are not automatically deemed Japanese citizens at birth, and must submit to an official background check and adopt Japanese names to become naturalized.3 Religious preferences are diverse, eighty four percent of the population is either Shinto or Buddhist, 0.7 percent is Christians, the other 15.3 percent are members of other faiths.4 These religions co-exist well, and compliment each other. The people hold the power in Japan because it is a democracy. Its culture stresses people and personal relations over parties. Until about 1975 there was no question who ruled Japan; it was the state bureaucracy. After 1975, the Liberal Democratic Party was in power, but during times of crisis the bureaucracy prevails.5 After its surrender in WWII, Japan reconstituted itself and became a democracy,6 by adopting an American drafted constitution in 1947. The majority of the population considers Japan a legitimate authority. However, Japan passes all but one of the four tests of legitimacy. First, they provide results for the population, such as food, shelter, money and jobs. Second, the general population obeys laws through habit, and benefit from these laws. Third, there is a history of a stable government, even before Japan became a democracy. Religion is accepted and peaceful. The test it does not pass is the one for ethnicity, in Japan there is a very small Korean minori...

Free Essays on Theories Of Child Development As They Pertain To Middle Childhood And Adolescence

changes in behavior over time. The use of the word â€Å"development† implies just that; for the theory should describe, explain, and predict behaviors or mental processes over time. The five major developmental theories are the psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioral and social learning, ethological, and ecological. This paper will summarize each of these theories and elucidate their relevance to middle childhood and adolescence. The psychoa... Free Essays on Theories Of Child Development As They Pertain To Middle Childhood And Adolescence Free Essays on Theories Of Child Development As They Pertain To Middle Childhood And Adolescence â€Å"†¦the trouble about arguments is, they ain’t nothing but theories, after all, and theories don’t prove nothing, they only give you a place to rest on, a spell, when you are tuckered out butting around and around trying to find out something there ain’t no way to find out†¦ There’s another trouble about theories: there’s always a hole in them somewhere, sure, if you look close enough.† -Tom Sawyer Abroad â€Å"It is theory that decides what can be observed.† -Albert Einstein Whether one believes Mark Twain’s fictional street smart character or the brilliant architect of the theory of relativity, it must be acknowledged that theories are a valuable way to think (and argue) about the world. For the scientific method of discovery, theories are essential. Theories are the starting point from which all systematic efforts can be directed for a theory is fundamental in the first step of the scientific method- conceptualizing the problem. Specifically, a theory is a set of interconnected statements that describe imperceptible, unobservable processes, events, or structures and relate them to each other and to observable events. In psychology, a theory provides general principles that help us to observe, explain, and predict behavior. In other words, it allows us to ask non trivial questions and to provide meaningful, interesting answers. There have been numerous theories that attempt to lay a framework of reference for examining changes in developm ent or in other words changes in behavior over time. The use of the word â€Å"development† implies just that; for the theory should describe, explain, and predict behaviors or mental processes over time. The five major developmental theories are the psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioral and social learning, ethological, and ecological. This paper will summarize each of these theories and elucidate their relevance to middle childhood and adolescence. The psychoa...

History of pubilc procurement Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

History of pubilc procurement - Term Paper Example It is also considered as the main element in the way public funds are utilized, hence enhancing public trust in procurement (Beth & OECD 19). Public procurement has been in existence since 1778 and has led to the implementation of public procurement law, which regulates the purchasing made by public sectors that contract goods, services and work. Public procurement is regulated in most countries to avoid corruption, fraud, and waste; indeed, public tenders are issued by a public authority when the value of procurement exceeds the required threshold. Today, public procurement is becoming more complex, forcing the public procurement officials to deal with the changing issues based on fairness, transparency, integrity, and equity, which are the principles of public procurement (Beth & OECD 18). The History of Public Procurement According to Thai (13), the first purchasing action was conducted in 1778, with the approval of the continental congress on the appointment of purchasing commiss ionaires. By the end of that year, the purchasing officers had been placed on a salary, with an aim of avoiding fraud. The congress thereafter passed a Purchasing Act, which permitted war and treasury departments to make purchases in the name of the United States. The first procurement was made in 1794 for the new United States navy; however, this procurement was accompanied by negative experiences, which led to the implementation of purveyor of Public Supplies Act, a procurement legislation that was the basis for military procurement. Misconducts and fraud cases led to the implementation of Public Contract Act of 1808, which warned members of the congress from using government contracts for personal interest (Thai 13). In the United States, public procurement organizations vary with the size of the government units; however, it has a complicated procurement structure. The federal procurement operates within a democratic framework, which is under the legislative, judiciary, and exec utive branches. Nevertheless, the courts are not involved in setting procurement policies and rules; however, they try the legal cases that involve contract disputes. The congress passes the laws that establish procurement policies and procedures; it also allocates specified funds for the procurement purposes within the time required (Thai 19). Public procurement also encounters several challenges. This function has a great impact on the country’s economy; hence, efficient handling of public procurement has proved to be a challenge. Ensuring that the principles of public procurement are followed to the later is also a challenging task. This includes ensuring that fair competition for the bidders is granted, promoting transparency, and ensuring that the allocated loans are used for the specified purposes only. Thirdly, public procurement is associated with fraud, waste, and corruption, hence a major challenge for a country. In addition, public procurement practitioners face th e challenge of complying with their home government regulations without violating the international trade agreements like the World Trade Organization (WTO). Today, the government has enacted several laws pertaining to public procurement, among them being the Public Act whose aim is to enact laws relating to public contracts. An example is the federal acquisition regulation and agency, which provides uniform procedures for federal agency acquisitions. The Truth in Negotiation Act of 1962 establishes rules that

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act - Essay Example The specified Act entails the use of information concerning foreign intelligence surveillance. Federal officers and employees may disclose the first part of the section states that information acquired from electronic surveillance intended to be in accordance with the Act2. Such disclosure does not necessarily require the consent of the United States person, for instance, as long as it is within the minimization procedures that are required by this title. Otherwise, any other communication that is obtained in violation or not in accordance with the Act shall be viable. The implication behind this is that no other information that is acquired from electronic surveillance with respect to the same title shall be used or even disclosed by Federal officers except only for justified, lawful reasons. The second subsection of the same section asserts that the information acquired in pursuance of the first title shall only be disclosed if and only if a statement accompanies the disclosure that warrants the disclosure. Such a warrant should be assented by the Attorney General whose office acknowledges the information to be used for criminal proceedings in a court of law. With such an airtight system leaks of crucial information is withheld purely on a need to know basis ensuring that the well-being of the Country at large is maintained. In the event that the state desires to enter into evidence which might require an aggrieved person to disclose or withhold part of information as recorded through electronic surveillance, it will issue a notice directing so via a court of law or any other relevant regulatory body in that respect. The aggrieved person will also be notified with regards to the same disclosure of the specified information. Furthermore, this provision enforces the safety of information, barring the spread of propaganda that might otherwise be harmful to the wellbeing of the government or the country at large as such statements of